In early Islamic society, a Muslim ruler once asked about the judges and scholars overseeing various provinces, only to learn that most were non-Arab clients, or mawālī—a term referring to freed slaves or non-Arab converts who became clients under the patronage of Arab tribes. This account is recorded in Al-ʿAqd al-Farīd, written by Ibn ʿAbd Rabbih (860–940 CE), and appears on page 124 of The Four Imams by Muhammad Abu Zahra.
Ibn Abi Layla said: ‘Īsā ibn Mūsā, a religious and very partisan man, asked me, “Who is the faqīh of Iraq?”
I replied, “Al-Ḥasan ibn Abī’l-Ḥasan (al-Baṣrī).”
“Then who?”
I said, “Muḥammad ibn Sīrīn.”
“Who are those two?” he asked.
“Two clients,” I replied.
“Who is the faqīh of Makka?” he asked.
“ʿAṭā ibn Abī Rabāḥ, Mujāhid, Saʿīd ibn Jubayr or Salmān ibn Yasār,” I replied.
“Who are they?”
“Clients.”
“Who are the fuqahāʾ of Madīna?”
“Zayd ibn Aslam, Muḥammad ibn al-Munkadir, and Nujayh ibn Abī Nujayh,” I replied.
“And who are they?” he asked.
“Clients,” I said.
His face changed colour. Then he asked, “Who knows the most fiqh of the people of Qubāʾ?”
“Rabīʿa ar-Raʾy and Ibn Abī’z-Zinād,” I responded.
“Who are they?”
“Clients.”
He scowled and then asked, “Who is the faqīh of Yemen?”
“Tāwūs, his son, and Ibn Munabbah,” I replied.
“Who are they?” he asked.
“Also clients.”
His veins bulged and he stood up. “And who is the faqīh of Khorasan?”
“ʿAṭāʾ ibn ʿAbdullāh al-Khurasānī.”
“Who is this ʿAṭāʾ?”
“A client,” I said.
His scowl deepened, and he glared until I became quite afraid of him. Then he said, “Who is the faqīh of Syria?”
“Makhūl,” I replied.
“Who is this Makhūl?”
“A client,” I said.
He began breathing hard and then asked, “Who is the faqīh of Kūfa?”
By Allah, were it not for fear for him, I would have said, “Al-Ḥakīm ibn ʿUtba and Ḥammād ibn Abī Sulaymān,” but seeing his violent state I replied, “Ibrāhīm an-Nakhaʿī and ash-Shaʿbī.”
“Who are they?” he asked.
“Two Arabs,” I replied.
“Allāh is greater!” he exclaimed and calmed down.
This anecdote reflects a profound reality: as Islam expanded beyond the Arabian Peninsula, it became heavily influenced by its new non-Arab constituency. A quick survey of the most influential figures in Sunni Islam reveals a notable pattern—many were non-Arabs, predominantly of Persian origin. These scholars were instrumental in developing core aspects of Sunni Islamic thought, from jurisprudence to theology, leaving a legacy that shaped the religious and intellectual landscape of Sunni Islam.
Hadith Compilers
The Kutub al-Sittah, or “The Six Books,” are the six major collections of hadith that are considered the most authoritative and widely accepted within Sunni Islam. These collections were compiled between the 9th and 10th centuries CE. The six books include Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim, which are regarded as the most reliable sources of hadith, followed by Sunan Abu Dawood, Sunan al-Tirmidhi, Sunan al-Nasa’i, and Sunan Ibn Majah. All six of these compilers were Persian.
Al-Bukhari (810–870)
Ethnicity: Persian
Contributions: Compiler of Sahih al-Bukhari, one of the most trusted collections of hadith in Sunni Islam.
Imam Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj (821–875)
Ethnicity: Persian
Contributions: Compiler of Sahih Muslim, the second most trusted collection of hadith in Sunni Islam.
Abu Dawud al-Sijistani (817-889)
Ethnicity: Persian
Contributions: Compiler of Sunan Abu Dāwūd
Imam al-Tirmidhi (824–892)
Ethnicity: Persian (from Tirmidh, in present-day Uzbekistan)
Contributions: Compiler of Jami’ al-Tirmidhi (also known as Sunan al-Tirmidhi)
Imam al-Nasa’i (829–915)
Ethnicity: Persian or Arab (from Nasa in present-day Turkmenistan)
Contributions: Compiler of Sunan al-Nasa’i
Imam Ibn Majah (824–887)
Ethnicity: Persian (from Qazvin, in present-day Iran)
Contributions: Compiler of Sunan Ibn Majah, which rounds out the six major hadith collections in Sunni Islam.
Madhhab
Sunni Islam has four major schools of jurisprudence ( madhahib). The earliest of the four is Hanafi, founded by Abu Hanifa (699-767 CE / 80-150 AH), who predominately resided in Kufa and Baghdad, Iraq. Abu Hanifa was known for his emphasis on reason and analogy in legal reasoning, which was based predominately on the Quran. The next in the line of progression was the Malaki school founded by Malik ibn Anas (711-795 CE / 93-179 AH), who resided in Medina. He based his legal rulings largely on the practices of the people of Madinah. His major work, al-Muwatta’, is one of the earliest collections of hadith and legal opinions consisting of ~1800 Hadith, of which a third were prophetic Hadith (61 without chains), a third of Hadith attributed to the companions and successors, and the last third of his personal legal opinion. Muhammad ibn Idris al-Shafi’i (767-820 / 150-204 AH) founded the Shafi’i school and was the first person to claim that the Hadith was wahi (divine revelation) and that the Hadith and Quran must be held equally. The last of the four was Ahmad ibn Hanbal (780-855 CE/164-241), who resided predominately in Baghdad, Iraq, and founded the Hanbali school. Of the four, Hanbal was the most devoted to Hadith and against reason, logic, and analogical reasoning. He often did not attempt to reconcile the contradictions between the Quran and Hadith and would take the Hadith over the Quran. His students proudly proclaimed that the Quran needs the Sunnah more than the Sunnah needs the Quran.
Abu Hanifa (699–767)
Ethnicity: Persian
Contributions: Founder of the Hanafi school of Islamic jurisprudence, which is one of the four major Sunni schools of law. The Hanafi school is the largest, with approximately 45-50% of Sunni Muslims worldwide.
Grammarians
Several influential early Islamic grammarians were of non-Arab origin, particularly from Persia. These scholars made significant contributions to Arabic grammar and linguistics, establishing foundational works that continue to be studied today. These scholars, though non-Arab by origin, played crucial roles in codifying and refining Arabic grammar.
Sibawayh (c. 760–796)
Background: Persian
Contributions: Often considered the “father of Arabic grammar,” Sibawayh wrote al-Kitab (“The Book”), one of the earliest and most comprehensive texts on Arabic grammar and syntax. His work systematized Arabic grammar based on the language of the Qur’an and the Bedouins, who were regarded as the purists of the Arabic language. Al-Kitab remains a cornerstone in the field of Arabic linguistics.
Al-Farisi (d. 987)
Background: Persian
Contributions: A renowned grammarian and student of Sibawayh’s teachings, Abu Ali al-Farisi expanded upon his teacher’s work and contributed significantly to the understanding of syntax. His works include al-Idah and al-Takmilah, which were commentaries on and expansions of Sibawayh’s foundational theories.
Al-Zamakhshari (1074–1144)
Background: Persian (from Khwarezm)
Contributions: Al-Zamakhshari is best known for his influential exegesis of the Qur’an, al-Kashshaf, which incorporates grammatical analysis. His work is highly regarded for its depth of linguistic and rhetorical insights. He was a major proponent of the Mu’tazilite theological school, and his linguistic works reflect this perspective.
Ibn Jinni (c. 941–1002)
Background: Likely of Greek descent
Contributions: Known for his works on phonetics, morphology, and the philosophy of language, Ibn Jinni’s major contributions include al-Khasa’is (The Characteristics), which delves into the theoretical aspects of language. He emphasized the relationship between sound and meaning, making significant advances in the study of phonology.
Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi (718–786)
Background: Possibly of Persian or South Arabian descent
Contributions: Al-Farahidi created the first Arabic dictionary, Kitab al-‘Ayn, and is credited with developing the principles of Arabic prosody. His work in phonetics, lexicography, and meter set foundational standards for Arabic linguistics, and he influenced grammarians like Sibawayh, who was his student.
Historians
Al-Tabari (839–923)
Ethnicity: Persian
Contributions: An influential historian and Quranic exegete, al-Tabari is known for his monumental historical work, Tarikh al-Rusul wa al-Muluk (History of Prophets and Kings), and his Quranic commentary, Tafsir al-Tabari. His works are among the earliest comprehensive resources on Islamic history and tafsir.
Ibn al-Nadim (c. 932–995)
Ethnicity: Persian
Contributions: A bibliographer and historian, Ibn al-Nadim is best known for his work al-Fihrist, which cataloged the knowledge of his time, including literature, philosophy, and science. His work is a valuable source on the intellectual history of early Islam.
Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti (1445-1505)
Ethnicity: Persian
Contributions: Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti (1445–1505) was a prominent Egyptian scholar of Persian descent, theologian, muhaddith, and historian, widely regarded for his prolific contributions to Islamic literature. Born and raised in Cairo, Suyuti was a Shafi’i jurist and belonged to the Ash’ari school of theology. He wrote on a wide array of subjects, including Quranic exegesis, hadith studies, linguistics, and Islamic history, leaving behind an impressive legacy of over 600 works. His erudition and mastery of Islamic sciences earned him significant respect, making him one of the most influential scholars of the late Mamluk period.
Theologians
The Islamic Golden Age, spanning roughly from the 8th to the 14th century, was a period of remarkable intellectual and cultural flourishing within the Islamic world. During this time, scholars and philosophers made significant advancements in various fields, including philosophy, science, mathematics, medicine, and theology. Many of the era’s leading philosophers, such as Al-Farabi, Al-Ghazali, Ibn Sina (Avicenna), and Ibn Rushd (Averroes), sought to harmonize Islamic teachings with Greek philosophy, particularly the works of Plato and Aristotle.
Interestingly, a substantial number of these influential thinkers were of non-Arab descent, predominantly Persian and Turkic, reflecting the diverse and cosmopolitan nature of the Islamic civilization. Their contributions not only shaped Islamic thought but also had a lasting impact on Western philosophy, especially during the European Renaissance, as their works were translated and studied across Europe.
Al-Ghazali (1058–1111)
Ethnicity: Persian
Contributions: Known as one of the most influential Muslim theologians, al-Ghazali’s works on philosophy, Sufism, and theology (such as The Incoherence of the Philosophers) helped shape Islamic thought and integrate various disciplines within Islamic education.
Al-Maturidi (d. 944)
Background: Persian (from Samarqand, present-day Uzbekistan)
Contributions: Founder of the Maturidi school of theology, which became one of the two major Sunni schools of kalam alongside Ash’arism. Al-Maturidi’s theology emphasizes human free will and reason, arguing that humans can know right from wrong through reason independently of divine revelation. His works, such as Kitab al-Tawhid, provide a systematic framework for understanding Islamic doctrine.
Al-Farabi (872–950)
Ethnicity: Turkic or Persian (from Transoxiana, in present-day Kazakhstan)
Contributions: A philosopher and polymath, al-Farabi is regarded as one of the founders of Islamic philosophy. His works covered logic, ethics, and political philosophy, and he was known for integrating Greek philosophical ideas with Islamic thought.
Reception in Sunni Islam: While Al-Farabi was highly influential in the development of Islamic philosophy, his views were sometimes viewed with suspicion by Sunni orthodoxy. Al-Farabi’s ideas on metaphysics, particularly his concepts of the “Active Intellect” and his interpretations of prophecy and the nature of God, raised concerns among more conservative Sunni scholars. They believed that his emphasis on philosophical reasoning could potentially undermine traditional Islamic teachings. However, he was still respected as a thinker, especially among those interested in philosophy, and his works were widely studied across the Islamic world. His influence extended to later Islamic philosophers like Ibn Sina, and he was also highly respected in medieval European thought.
Reason Behind Non-Arab Influence in Sunni Islam
Numerous reasons and factors aided in how non-Arabs had such a disproportionate impact on Sunni Islam.
Social and Economic Motivation
After converting to Islam, non-Arabs sought to integrate into Muslim society. Becoming mawali (clients) allowed them to affiliate with Arab tribes, as this relationship was necessary for social acceptance in the early Islamic community. As they adopted the new faith, many sought a deep understanding of Islamic teachings, seeing religious scholarship as a path to earn respect and status within the Arab-dominated society.
Mawali found that knowledge in religious sciences opened opportunities for roles in administration, education, and the judiciary. Since the Arab elite often focused on political and military expansion, these scholarly positions were less contested and thus became an accessible path for non-Arabs to contribute to Islamic civilization.
Focus on Scholarship and Urban Settlement
Non-Arab Muslims often settled in major urban centers like Basra, Kufa, and Baghdad, where educational institutions, mosques, and libraries provided access to knowledge and scholarly networks. These cities were centers for learning, hosting discussions on theology, jurisprudence, and language. Non-Arabs in these cities could engage with scholars, access texts, and become involved in the intellectual activities that were not as readily available in Bedouin-dominated areas.
With the expansion of the Islamic empire, there was a growing need to systematize Islamic law, preserve hadith, and establish schools of thought. Non-Arab converts were well-positioned to contribute to these areas, particularly because they often had access to the resources and scholarly tools necessary for studying and documenting Islamic sciences. For instance, Ibn Khaldun notes that Arabs traditionally had a nomadic lifestyle, which meant they lacked experience with the scholarly and administrative tasks required to codify and teach the religious sciences, a role that the settled mawali could fill.
Cultural and Intellectual Backgrounds
Many of the mawali, particularly Persians, came from cultures with established traditions of scholarship, literature, and administration. They brought with them experience in systematic thinking and administrative organization, which they applied to Islamic scholarship. For instance, Persian converts helped develop Arabic grammar (like Sibawayh), codified Islamic law, and contributed to the sciences of hadith and tafsir (Quranic exegesis).
Non-Arab scholars, fluent in languages like Persian, Greek, and Syriac, were instrumental in translating and adapting Greek philosophical and scientific texts into Arabic. This not only enriched the intellectual landscape of Islam but also allowed for a more profound interaction between Islamic theology and Greek philosophy, an influence that figures like Al-Farabi and Ibn Sina would later build upon.
Support from Islamic Rulers
The Abbasids, in particular, embraced Persian administrators and scholars, who played crucial roles in running the state and shaping intellectual life in the Islamic world.
The following excerpt from Ibn Khaldun’s book The Muqaddiah, Chapter 6, p. 428, in the section titled “Most of the scholars in Islam have been non-Arabs.”
It is a remarkable fact that, with few exceptions, most Muslim scholars both in the religious and in the intellectual sciences have been non-Arabs. When a scholar is of Arab origin, he is non-Arab in language and upbringing and has non-Arab teachers. This is so in spite of the fact that Islam is an Arab religion, and its founder was an Arab.
The reason for it is that at the beginning Islam had no sciences or crafts, because of the simple conditions and the desert attitude. The religious laws, which are the commands and prohibitions of God, were in the breasts of the authorities. They knew their sources, the Qur’an and the Sunnah, from information they had received directly from Muhammad himself and from the men around him. The people at that time were Arabs. They did not know anything about scientific instruction or the writing of books and systematic works. There was no incentive or need for that. This was the situation during the time of the men around Muhammad and the men of the second generation. The persons who were concerned with knowing and transmitting the (religious laws) were called ‘Qur’an readers’, that is, people who were able to read the Qur’an and were not illiterate. Illiteracy was general at that time among the men around Muhammad, since they were Bedouins.
By the time of the reign of ar-Rashid, (oral) tradition had become far removed (from its starting point). It was thus necessary to write commentaries on the Qur’an and to fix the traditions in writing, because it was feared that they might be lost. It was also necessary to know the chains of transmitters and to assess their reliability, in order to be able to distinguish sound chains of transmitters from inferior ones. Then, more and more laws concerning actual cases were derived from the Qur’an and the Sunnah. Moreover, the Arabic language became corrupt, and it was necessary to lay down grammatical rules.
All the religious sciences had thus become habits connected with producing and deriving (laws and norms) and with comparison and analogical reasoning. Other, auxiliary sciences became necessary, such as knowledge of the rules of the Arabic language, (knowledge of) the rules that govern the derivation (of laws) and analogical reasoning, and defense of the articles of faith by means of arguments, because a great number of innovations and heresies (had come into existence). All these things developed into sciences with their own habits, requiring instruction (for their acquisition). Thus, they came to fall under the category of crafts.
We have mentioned before that the crafts are cultivated by sedentary people and that of all peoples the Bedouins are least familiar with the crafts. Thus, the sciences came to belong to sedentary culture, and the Arabs were not familiar with them or with their cultivation. Now, the only sedentary people at that time were non-Arabs and, what amounts to the same thing, the clients and sedentary people who followed the non-Arabs at that time in all matters of sedentary culture, including the crafts and professions. They were most versed in those things, because sedentary culture had been firmly rooted among them from the time of the Persian Empire.
Thus, the founders of grammar were Sibawayh and, after him, al-Farisi and az-Zajjaj. All of them were of non-Arab (Persian) descent. They were brought up in the Arabic language and acquired the knowledge of it through their upbringing and through contact with Arabs. They invented the rules of (grammar) and made it into a discipline (in its own right) for later (generations to use).
Most of the hadith scholars who preserved traditions for the Muslims also were Persians, or Persian in language and upbringing, because the discipline was widely cultivated in the ‘Iraq and the regions beyond.
Furthermore, all the scholars who worked in the science of the principles of jurisprudence were Persians. The same applies to speculative theologians and to most Qur’an commentators. Only the Persians engaged in the task of preserving knowledge and writing systematic scholarly works. Thus, the truth of the following statement by the Prophet becomes apparent: ‘If scholarship is hung suspended in the highest parts of heaven, the Persians would attain it.’
The Arabs who came into contact with that flourishing sedentary culture and exchanged their Bedouin attitude for it, were diverted from occupying themselves with scholarship and study by their leading position in the ‘Abbasid dynasty and the tasks that confronted them in government. They were the men of the dynasty, and once its protectors and the executors of its policy. In addition, at that time, they considered it a lowly thing to be a scholar, because scholarship is a craft, and political leaders are always contemptuous of the crafts and professions and everything that leads to them. Thus, they left such things to non-Arabs and persons of mixed Arab and non-Arab parentage. The latter cultivated them, as they were always considered it their right to cultivate them, as they were the custom and their sciences, and never felt complete contempt for the men learned in them. The final result, however, was that when the Arabs lost power and the non-Arabs took over, the religious sciences had no place with the men in power, because the latter had no relations with (scholarship). Scholars were viewed with contempt, because the men in power saw that scholars had no contact with them, and were occupying themselves with things that were of no interest to the men in power in governmental and political matters. This is why all scholars in the religious sciences, or most of them, are non-Arabs.
The intellectual sciences, as well, made their appearance in Islam only after scholars and authors had become a distinct group of people and all scholarship had become a craft. (The intellectual sciences) were then the special preserve of non-Arabs, left alone by the Arabs, who did not cultivate them.
This situation continued in the cities as long as the Persians and the Persian countries, the ‘Iraq, Khurasan, and Transoxania, retained their sedentary culture. But when those cities fell into ruin, sedentary culture, which God has devised for the attainment of sciences and crafts, disappeared from them. Along with it, scholarship altogether disappeared from among the Persians, who were now engulfed by the desert attitude. Scholarship was restricted to cities with an abundant sedentary culture. Today, no city has a more abundant sedentary culture than Cairo. It is the mother of the world, the great centre of Islam, and the mainspring of the sciences and the crafts.